Piaget - Cognitive Development
(Constructivist Perspective)
Schema, Assimilation & Accommodation
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A schema is what a child understandings of how things work or what something is.
e.g. A dog and a cat
Adaptaion refers to how a child changes over time as it makes sense of the world in which it lives. Adaptation comes about through the processes of assimilation and accommodation.
Through assimilation we take in new information and include them in current existing
Accommodation means adapting already existing schema's to fit the new process
Equilibrium means 'a calm state of mind'
Disequilibrium is used to describe when someone does not have a calm sense of mind.
Example
The child is actively constructing a schema about dogs. The child then assimilates the information and returns back to a state of equilibrium.
A child then recognises a dog as; ears, four legs and tail.
The assimilation process then continues. Child expands understanding of what a dog is by observing on in the park.
The child checks 'Yes' the animal has; Ears, four legs and a tail. Then the animal barks, the child then experiences disequilibrium, the child's schema does not contain bark. Then in petting the animal the child notices that the animal is furry, the assimilation process is continuing. The child experiences disequilibrium . The child's schema about dogs does not include fur. The child is then licked by the dog, again experiencing disequilibrium, the child's schema does not include licking.
The child is in a state of disequilibrium, this is due to the fact that the child does not recognise; bark, licking or fur. While the child is in a state of disequilibrium, they are actively constructing meaning. They are building an internal schema or adding information to an existing one (accommodation). The child then seeks reinforcement from the parent.
The child states 'Dog?' to the parent, to which they then affirms and reinforces the new information. Assimilation is occurring. Disequilibrium resolves. Schema is organised to incorporate new information.
To the list of; ears, four legs and tail, the child also adds; barks, furry and licks. The child then returning to a state of equilibrium.
Accommodation
Now the child sees a cat in the park. A new schema must be formed to acknowledge this is a different animal, even though it has some similar traits of a dog.
The child goes down the checklist; four legs, ears, tail, barks, furry and licks. The animal then 'meow's'. Now the child is in a state of disequilibrium. The animal is furry and it does lick, but it does not bark. Now the animal climbs up the tree.
The child is now again in a state of disequilibrium and is actively constructing meaning. The child asks the parent to assist in resolving this disequilibrium. 'Dog?', the parent provides feedback and reinforces this is a cat 'No. Cat.'.
Through the process of accommodation, the child creates a new schema. Child is in disequilibrium, they are now actively constructing meaning. Cat; four legs, ears, tail, meows, furry, licks and climbs.
Accommodation has occurred, the child now returns to a state of disequilibrium.
A new schema about cats has been formed.
Ta-da!
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Applying Piaget to Education
‘Each time one prematurely teaches a child something he could have discovered for himself, that child is kept from inventing it and consequently from understanding it completely.’
Piaget was the main influence in how children are taught in schools now-a-days. In schools they have implemented 3 recommendations that were associated with Piaget's report;
- Children should only be taught things that they are capable of learning, e.g. teaching then Pythagoras's theorem at age 7 would be inappropriate because they would not be able to grasp the understanding of the numbers and letters.
- Children mature at different rates and the teacher needs to be aware of the stage of development that each child is at so teaching can be tailored to their individual needs
- Children should be given individual attention and it should be realised that they need to be treated differently.
They should be taught a 'child-centered' approach as the children are unable to grasp the full understanding of other people's feelings. As ages 2-7 they are very ego-eccentric, this means that they are unable to comprehend other people's feelings and seeing things from other people's points of view (three mountains can also apply here).
The rate of learning is biologically determined and therefore the rate of learning cannot be sped up.
Role of teacher;
- Adapt lessons to suit the individual needs of the child.
- be aware of the child stage of development
- Provide stimulation through a variety of tasks
- produce/produce a variety of learning materials.
- Use concrete examples when describing abstract concepts e.g. ships floating for density, pumping water around houses for a a flow of current in a circuit.
Examples of use in Education.
Nuffield Maths Project is based on on Piaget's stages that formal operations have been reached by the age of 12. As a result concrete examples are no longer required. For example; algebra can now be taught.
Evaluation
Another theorist (Child - 1997) points out that Piaget's view is pessimistic, if the child is expected to 'sit back and wait' for the child to develop. Teachers should, by the right techniques, be able to encourage children to develop through the stages.Curriculum Development
Curricula need to be developed that take into account age and stage of thinking of the child. For example there is no point in teaching abstract concepts such as algebra or atomic structures to children in primary school as they do not understand.
It also needs to be sufficiently flexible to allow for variations in ability of different students of the same age. In Britain the National Curriculum and Key Stages broadly reflect the stages that Piaget laid down.
Practical Experiment
Ego-centricism dominates a child's thinking in the sensori-motor stage and pre-operational stages. Piaget would therefore predict that using group activities would not be appropriate since children are not yet capable to understanding the views of others.
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Stages of Development
There are 4 stages that Piaget has outlines in which children have changes in the cognitive development; Sensori-motor, pre-operational, formal operation and concrete operational.
Sensori-motor (0-2 years)
In this stage children lack internal schema's. The child's understandin of it's world is directly through it's sense from moment to moment. It is so called because it senses its environment and carries out movement (motor) to react to it. At this stage that is all the child can do
The main features of this stage include:
Egocentricism
Lacks object permanence
The child assumes that objects no longer exist if they’re not visible.
Research evidence
Piaget carried out research on his own children. They would be shown an attractive object that would then be hidden from view. Children up to the age of 8 months don’t bother to look for it assuming it to no longer exist. After 8 months children will continue to search for hidden objects.
Evidence against
Baillargeon and DeVos (1991) employed an ingenious experiment using long and short carrots. It relies on the concept that children will spend longer looking at events that they consider to be impossible. In this case, even though the carrots were not visible for a crucial stage of the experiment children as young as three months old realised that they still existed and spent longer puzzling over the ‘impossible situation.’
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| Young children glance at this one but seem to realise there's nothing unusual about it. |
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| However, they spend significantly longer looking at this one, suggesting that they realise its impossible. That is they realise that the carrot should still be visible in the space. |
Clearly this casts doubt on Piaget’s assertion that children didn’t develop object permanence until 8 months of age
Pre-operational (2-7 years)
Child is still dominated by the external world, rather than it's own thoughts. However, it now forms some simple internal representations of its world (schemas) through its increasing ability to use language. The stage is called 'pre-operational' since the child is unable to perform operations (such as heart by-passes and key hole surgery; well you know what I mean!). An 'operation' according to Piaget, is a mental rule for manipulating objects or ideas into new forms, and then, crucially, being able to manipulate them back again. Since pre-operational children are unable to reverse things mentally they are unable to do this.
Features:
Egocentricism
Child remains egocentric but this now refers more to its inability to see things from other people's perspectives, as famously demonstrated by the 'Three Mountains' task.
Research evidence
Piaget & Inhelder’s ‘Three Mountains Task.’ Children would be seated at a table with a 3D model of three mountains in front of them. A doll would be placed in various positions around the table and the child shown photos of various views. They would be asked to choose the picture that best fitted the view as seen from the doll. To complete this task successfully children would have to imagine the view as seen by the doll. The researchers found that children below the age of 7 had problems completing the task, tending to choose the photo that showed their view of the mountains. Think of the young girl in the video explaining her new toy to her grandfather on the phone and assuming that because she could see it so could her granddad.
Evidence to contradict Piaget
Hughes (1975) repeated the three mountains task using a situation he thought would be more familiar to the child, i.e. the naughty boy hiding from the policeman. Hughes found that 90% of children aged 3 to 5 could complete the task successfully, concluding that it was lack of understanding rather than egocentricism that was causing the problems for Piaget's participants.
Animism
This is related to egocentricism and is the tendency to attribute feelings to inanimate objects so for example the child may apologise for hurting its teddy bear or decide to punish one of its toys
for being naughty. I’ll restrain from any adult humour here!
Realism
Believing that psychological events, such as dreams, are real.
Lack of Conservation
The inability to realise that some things remain unchanged despite looking different. Piaget concentrated on conservation of number and volume. Piaget put this down to the child's inability to pay attention to more than one characteristic of a situation at a time and to its inability to reverse operations in its head (e.g. to visualise the water being poured back into the original container).
Piaget believed that conservation of number develops first. He demonstrated this by the use of counters. Children are shown 2 rows each with the same number of counters and realise the 2 rows contain the same number. If the researcher rearranges one of the rows by spacing the counters out the child believes there are more.
Conservation of volume, as demonstrated by pouring liquid from small wide beakers into tall thin measuring cylinders, develops later, at the very end of the pre-operational stage.
Evidence against
McGarrigle & Donaldson (1974) showed that children as young as 4 could conserve number if the situation is given meaning.
It is also important to note that Piaget concentrates almost entirely on mathematical skills and logic. Between the ages of 7 and 11 children acquire a vast number of other new skills that Piaget chose to ignore.
McGarrigle & Donaldson (1974) repeated Piaget’s conservation experiment on 6-year-old children. The child is shown 2 rows of equal numbers of counters. The child agrees that the 2 rows are the same. If the researcher then messes one of the rows up, without altering the number of counters, only 16% believe that the number of counters is still the same. So far just as Piaget would have predicted. However, when a naughty teddy bear messes up the row of counters 62% of children in this age group are able to conserve! This shows that children are better able to conserve than Piaget proposed. M & D assume that in the original condition it appears to the child that the researchers are intending to alter the number of counters, or that they are asking a trick question. In the teddy condition there is a reason for the counters just to be messed up so the situation has meaning.
Rose & Black (1974) believed asking the child the same question twice was confusing. ‘Are there the same number of buttons in each row?’ The buttons would then be rearranged and the question repeated. Perhaps the children believe this to be a trick question. Samuel & Bryant (1984) repeated the counters experiment but only asked the question once, after the counters had been rearranged. This produced more correct answers
General evaluation points on this stage:
Piaget’s research has generated lots of research into this particular stage, but it has been inconclusive or at odds with Piaget’s original work:
Piaget often under-estimated the age at which children could perform activities. Wheldall & Poborca (1980) believe that children are unable to perform conservation tasks because they don't understand the question.
Variations in an experimental procedure can produce very different findings. Some studies conclude that children are still egocentric others that they have out grown this characteristic.
Piaget’s original studies were often poorly thought through and for example were not suited to the age range of the children he was studying. Instructions may have been confusing or the tasks themselves too complex. For example ‘Three Mountains’ task which was manageable when re-worked by Hughes in a more familiar format.
Formal Operational (7-11 years)
The child is now able to carry out operations on its environment and develops logical thought. However, it still requires concrete examples, being unable to think in abstract terms. Less importance is attached to information from our senses as we use thought and imagination more.
Features of this stage include;
Reversibility refers to the ability to mentally picture an action being carried out in reverse. This is essential for conservation, e.g. imagining the water being poured back into the original beaker.
Conservation made possible by the ability to decentre. Conservation of number is first (5 to 6 years), followed by conservation of weight (7 to 8 years) and finally conservation of volume by 11 years of age.
Transitivity is only possible with concrete examples. For example 'Jackie is fairer than Sarah, Jackie is darker than Nicola. Who is the darkest?' The concrete operational child would not be able to work this one out mentally, it would require dolls or pictures of the three girls. Similarly A > B > C. This would not be possible since it requires abstract thought rather than concrete examples.
Research Evidence
Piaget's own studies demonstrated that children in this age group were able to conserve successfully.
Concrete Operational (11+ years)
Piaget used the term ‘formal’ since children in this stage can concentrate on the form of an argument without being distracted by the content (Jarvis 2001). For example if x is greater than y but less than z. The child can now work this out without needing to know what x, y and z refer to. Smith et al (1998) provide the following example:
‘All green birds have two heads. I have a green bird called Charlie. How many heads does Charlie have?’ A child in the earlier stages would be bogged down by the content, i.e. birds have one head. Formal thinkers can concentrate on the structure (or form) of the question in this context.
Piaget maintained that everyone would reach this stage eventually, even if it took us until 20. However, there is plenty of evidence to suggest that this is not the case and that certainly it tends to occur later than Piaget predicted.
Bradmetz (1999), in a longitudinal study showed that out of 62 children tested at the age of 15, on a series of Piagetian tasks, only one had reached formal thought.
Features of this stage include;
Abstract thought
The child can now think in abstract terms so no longer requires concrete examples to solve problems.
Hypothetical thought
The child is able to consider things that it has no experience of and consider imaginary scenarios.
Research evidence
Piaget would set children the task of finding what determines the frequency of swing of a pendulum. Concrete thinkers normally believe that it is the push that the experimenter gives it. When they test possibilities they fail to control other variables. The formal thinker on the other hand considers all possible variables such as push, length of string, weight of bob etc. They carefully isolate variables and control confounding variables.
Evidence against
1. Some psychologists argue that formal operational thought is not as important to everyday life as Piaget seems to have concluded. Since most problems we face have no one obvious right answer, logical thought is not always necessary.
2. It seems many adults never actually reach Piaget’s description of formal thinking.
3. Gladwin (1970) argues that the tests Piaget used are inappropriate for testing non-western culture. The Pulawat navigators of Polynesia demonstrate formal thinking when navigating in their canoes but fail western tests designed to test their formal thinking.
Overall Evaluation of Piaget's Constructivist Theory
Ages and stagesResearch mostly suggests that children acquire their skills earlier than Piaget suggested (e.g. Hughes, McGarrigle and Donaldson etc).
Some psychologists believe that only 30% of the population reach formal ops. This is the one stage were Piaget seems to have over-estimated rather than under-estimated the ability of the child. Dasen argues that some cultures don’t develop formal operational thought at all.
Many of the stages overlap (decalage) for example during the concrete stage there is constant development in small sub-stages as the child learns to conserve number then amount and finally liquid. So rather than a sudden stop-start stage process, development becomes more of a steady progression.
Cross-cultural evidence
From a cross-cultural perspective the order of the stages seems to be universal, although rate of progression varies.
Dasen (1984) carried out conservation type tests and tests of spatial relationships on Aboriginal children ages eight to fourteen.
Typically he found that they performed less well than Western children on conservation tasks with this skill not being developed until the age of 13 in some of those tested whereas spatial awareness developed younger than in the west. In fact when tested for conservation many adults couldn’t complete the task successfully. Such finding are perhaps not surprising in a group of people that spend so much time on the move and amounts don’t need to be measured accurately. However, when Aborigines live in western societies and receive a western education their skills develop in line with western norms.
This would suggest that the stages are not as universal as Piaget believed and also suggests that culture is a major influence on development. See Vygotsky’s theory for an explanation of this one.
Performance and ability.Piaget measured a child’s performance and assumed that this was a true reflection of its underlying ability. For whatever reason children do not always perform to the best of their ability, e.g. lack of understanding of the problem, as highlighted by McGarrigle & Donaldson (1974).
Other abilities.
Piaget tended to focus on logical and mathematical thought development, neglecting other developments such as memory and social abilities etc. These may account for the wide individual differences between children.
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Methods.
Hughes and McGarrigle & Donaldson have shown that using different methods, children can achieve stages at an earlier age than was predicted. They believe Piaget’s experiments were over complex and used language that the child was unable to relate to.
Piaget used the clinical interview technique, which is time consuming. As a result his sample sizes tended to be small.
When observing behaviour it is usual to use inter-rater reliability (two or more people observing and comparing notes in some way) in order to reduce bias. Piaget could have used this method but preferred to observe alone making his research less reliable and reducing its validity.
Demand characteristics
It is believed that children in Piaget’s experiments may have given answers that they thought Piaget wanted to hear rather than the answers that they believed to be right.
Unrealistic
As Segall (1999) points out, Piaget portrays a child as an ‘idealised, non-existent individual, completely divorced form the social environment.’ As we’ll see later, Vygotsky helps to redress this balance.
Individual differences
These were largely ignored. Piaget admitted that he wanted to produce a general (nomothetic) theory of development of intelligence and knowledge. He wasn’t interested in individual differences.
General Favourable comments
Much of Piaget’s work has received widespread support. Piaget did adapt his early theories to take account of criticisms. He also believed that one day it could be integrated with other theories to produce a rounded view of child development.
Productivity
Few Psychologists, if any, have provoked as much follow up research. Over the years this has added significantly to our understanding of child development. For example Bruner and the Information Processing theories both take Piaget as a starting point.
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